Fig. 1

Overview of the agroforestry systems studied. A Map of Germany (light orange), Baden-Württemberg (dark orange) and the locations of the two research sites (red dots), Geodata: © GeoBasis-DE/BKG (2023). B Top view on the TLS point cloud from Ebringen, dark pixels indicate low, and light pixels indicate high height above ground. C Photo of the agroforestry system in Ebringen